Elements of Hindu Iconography (4 Volumes)

This treatise in one of the early attempts by an archaeologist of our country for a diligent search into the origin, descriptions, symbols, mythological background, meaning and moral aims of Hindu images.

The book is in two volumes, each volume again in two parts. Vol. I, Part I contains a long Introduction discussing among other things the origin of Hindu image worship in India, explanatory description of the terms employed in the work, Ganapati, Visnu and his major and minor avataras and manifestations, Garuda and Ayudha-Purushas or personified images of the weapons and emblems held by gods. Vol. I, Part II deals with Aditya and Nava Grahas (nine planets) and their symbolic features and images worshipped, Devi (Goddesses), Parivara-devatas, and measurement of proportions in images. Vol. II, Part I begin with an Introduction discussing the cult of Siva, which is followed by such important topics as Siva, Lingas, Lingodbhavamurti, Chandrasekaharamurti, Pasupatamurti and Raudrapasupatamurti, other ugra forms of Siva, Dakshinamurti, Kankalamurit and Bhikshatanamurti, and other important aspects of Siva. Vol. II, Part II contains descriptions of Subrahmanya, Nandikesvara and Adhikaranandi, Chandesvara, Bhaktas, Arya or Harihaputra, Kshetrapalas, Brama, the Dipalakas and demo-gods.

In addition the book contains 5 Appendices, three in Vol.I, Part II and two in Vol. II, Part II, including Sanskrit texts of Parivaradevatah, Uttamadasatalabidhih and Pratimalaksanani.

The treatment has been made interesting by profuse illustrations, the two volumes containing as many as 282 photographs of sacred images.

Preface

The tall spire of the Hindu temple is one of the first objects to arrest the attention of the observant foreigner and excite his curiosity as he travels through India. On going into the temple, he meets with a number of what may perhaps appear to him to be grim and meaningless images, is stone and bronze and other materials, some with two, others with four or more arms, holding a variety of weapons and other more or less curious articles in their hands. The man on the spot may tell him on enquiry that one of those images is the figure of Vishnu, the god of protection, another that of Siva, the god of destruction, and so on, about the innumerable gods and goddesses comprised within the tolerant and all-inclusive fold of the Hindu religion. Some such foreigner, more curious that others of his kind, is sometimes tempted to study these images somewhat carefully, find out their number and characteristics and gather the legends relating to them from the Puranas and other sources, as also from the learned natives of the country well versed in their religious and mythological lore. Then at last he may come out with his volume on the Hindu gods, on Hindu mythology and other kindred subjects. Such in fact are most of the books that have been written hitherto by foreign authors on topics relating to Hindu Iconography.

It is exactly two hundred years since Ziegenbalg, the famous Danish missionary of Tranquebar, wrote his work on the "Generalogy of the South Indian Gods," with the aid of the information he gathered from some people of the Tamil land. In the year 1785 the book known as "Sketches of the Mythology and Customs of the Hindus" was brought out by George Foster. Moore's "Hindu Pantheon", with illustrations, was first printed in 1810 and then reprinted by Messrs. Higginbotham & Co., of Madras, in 1864, with notes from the pen of the Rev. W.O. Simpson. "Ancient and Hindu Mythology", a work written sympathetically and in defense of the views written sympathetically and in defence of the views of the Hindus, with a large number of extracts from the Puranas and other Hindu scriptural sources, was thereafter brought out by Col. Vans Kennedy in 1831. Another work named "A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology" was published by John Dawson in 1879. The last among such works is W. J. Wilkins' "Hindu Mythology", illustrated with pictures, and explained with reference to the Puranas and other religious writings of the Hindus.

It will thus be seen that books dealing with Hindu images and Hindu mythology are not altogether wanting. Nevertheless, Fergusson, who is an eminent authority on Eastern and Indian architecture, has justly remarked-"Whenever any one "will seriously undertake to write the history of "sculpture in India, he will find the materials "abundant and the sequence by no means difficult "to follow; but with regard to mythology, the case different. It cannot, however, be said that the "materials are not abundant for this branch of the "enquiry also; but they are of much less tangible or "satisfactory nature, and have become so entangled, "that it is extremely difficult to obtain any clear "ideas regarding them; and it is to be feared they "must remain so, until those who investigate the subject will condescend to study the architecture "and sculpture of the country as well as its books. "The latter contain a good deal, but they do not "contain all the information available on the "subject; and they require to be steadied and confirmed by what is built or carved, which alone can "give precision and substance to what is written… "It is remarkable that, with all the present day "activity in every branch of Sanskrit research, so "very little has been done for the illustration of "mythology, which is so intimately connected with "the whole literature. It would be a legitimate part "of the duty of the Archaeological Surveys to collect "materials on a systematic plan for this object; "and the production of illustrations has now become "so easy and inexpensive that photographs from "original materials of a satisfactory class might "readily be published to supply this most pressing "desideratum. The details of the emblems and "symbols of the numerous divinities of the "pantheon could also be collected, along with the "delineations, by those familiar with such symbols. "All this could easily be accomplished, and it is "consequently hoped it may before long be "attempted."

It has to be said that the books by European authors referred to above do not contain the information, which is available in indigenous Sanskrit works on Iconography; nor do they give pictorial representations of the sculptures that are actually found in this vast country. On the other hand, some of those authors have given what might be well understood to be their own version of Hindu mythology, and in their descriptions of Hindu images, with here and there a pungent remark about what they consider an uncouth representation or an immoral legend, they seem to have cared to study neither the symbolism underlying the mythical stories nor the meaning of the image illustrating them. A book on the model suggested by Fergusson has indeed been a great desideratum.

The first attempt to supply this want to some extent was made by that many-sided Bengali scholar and author, Mr. Nagendranath Vasu, in this interesting volume on the Archaeological Survey of Mayurabhanja. Some years ago the idea occurred to me that I might try to bring out a book on the subject of Hindu Iconography to supply as far as I could, the desideratum noted by Fergusson. I was originally under the impression that it could be done without pressing much into service the information contained in original Sanskrit works of authority on the subject, even of the existence of which I was not then fully aware. Soon, the bewildering variety of images that were found in relation to one and the same god convinced me that to get at the details of their mythological meaning and moral aim without the help of the Sanskrit works bearing on them was almost an impossible task. Luckily, while touring in North Therefore, I had one occasion the good fortune to get hold of a small manuscript work entitled Silparatna; and on deciphering it with considerable difficulty, I found it to be a synopsis in Malayalam verse of a bigger treatise of the same name. Another small fragmentary manuscript, which came into my hands later on, was found to be, from the colophons at the end of the chapters, an agama called Amsumadbhedagama. Some years previously, I had purchased eight or nine works on Saivagama; but, owing to want of time, I had not even taken the trouble to know what they contained. About this time I began to look into them and what a mine of wealth they revealed themselves to be! They contained chapter on chapter of minute descriptions relating to most Saiva images and to some Vaishnava images as well. My search for more agamas and tantras resulted in the collection of a large number of them, which in fact belong to all the various Hindu sects. From the materials thus acquired, I began first to pick up merely the descriptions of images, as they are given in them. The agamas generally deal with many other topics than simple iconography. While engaged thus, I went on improving at the same time my collection of photographs of the sculptures and castings representing the various Hindu divinities.

In the middle of 1912, I actually began the task of writing out a systematic description of the images, and soon finished the description of a number of minor deities.

After having proceeded so far, it struck me that the chief difficulty in the way of the accomplishment of my undertaking was in securing the required financial aid for its publication. The work required photomechanical reproductions of a large number of images, the cost of which alone was quite enough to scare me away from the undertaking. As a matter of fact, I should really have been compelled, howsoever reluctantly, to abandon my cherished object, but for the opportune help and encouragement most generously offered by the enlightened Government of His Highness the Maharaja of Travancore. The Dewan, Mr. Rajagopalacharya, readily perceived the value of the undertaking, and promised to sanction the amount required for the publication of the work. The sympathetic attitude of this highly cultured gentleman at the head of affairs in Travancore afforded a new stimulus and induced me to work with redoubled vigor and earnestness. The required Sanskrit texts were all quickly gathered, but the growth of the collection of the needed photographs did not proceed apace. I then approached the Dewan with the request that I should be permitted to go out on tour to places outside the State, in the Madras and the Bombay Presidencies and also in the Mysore State, to obtain the photographs. The tour was sanctioned; and my visit to these places not only enriched my photographic collection, but was also of a very highly educative value to me. It enabled me to study the various iconographic symbols and emblems directly from the sculptures themselves. Wherever photographing was impossible, there I indented upon my amateur knowledge of drawing and painting. I frequently took pen and ink sketches, and occasionally full-sized colored drawings of mural paintings, although this later work was extremely tedious.

I consider it a duty to refer here to the unstinted help, which I received from my friend, the late Mr. (M.K. Narayanasami Ayyar, Vakil of the Madras High Court, who secured for my work as many photographs as he could take during his visits to various outside stations in the Madras Presidency on professional and other kinds of business, and thereby facilitated my work very considerably. Mr. Narayanasami Ayyar was a well read scholar, critic and philosopher and was to have contributed to this work a learned article on Devi-worship. Unfortunately, however, the hand of death deprived me all on a sudden of the further help to which I had been looking forward with high hope; and the result is that this work has had to lose the advantage of an erudite and complete account of Devi-worship from the pen of a profound scholar well versed in the Sakta and other religious schools known to the sacred literature of the Hindus.

I am only too well aware of the several defects which abound in this production of mind, but feel at the same time somehow confident that scholars will look upon them indulgently by taking into consideration the vastness of the material to be collected and digested, and also the fact that my official duties in Travancore have been so heavy as to lave little time for much extra work of this kind. Moreover, I have to state that this is in more than one respect the first attempt of its kind, and does not profess to be anything like a complete presentation of the subject. I shall certainly consider myself under the circumstances to be amply rewarded if this humble work of mine serves the purpose of simply breaking the ground and induces abler scholars to deal with the subject in a fuller and more satisfactory manner.

I take this opportunity of again expressing my deep gratitude to the liberal Government of H. H. the maharaja of Travancore for their having made the publication of this work possible; and personally I am highly indebted to Dewan Bahadur P. Rajagopalacharya M.A., B.L., C.I.E., for the enlightened and encouraging interest he has all along taken in the production of this work. I cannot sufficiently thank Pandit V. Srinivasa Sastri, Smritivisarada, but for whose willing co-operation and unceasing industry it would indeed have been very difficult for me to bring out this work. My best thanks are due also to Pandit T. Ganapati sastri, Curator of the Sanskrit Manuscripts Library, Trivandram, for his readily helping me with all the manuscripts I applied for from time to time in connection with this work. Mr. D.R. Bhandarkar, M.A., Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, showed me great kindness in lending me his copy of Rupa-mandana, which seems to be a comparatively late work on Hindu Iconography. I have, in conclusion, to say that I cannot sufficiently express my gratitude and indebtedness to my respected master, Rao Bahadur Prof. M. Rangacharya, M.A., of the Presidency College, Madras, for the very great interest, which he has throughout evinced in the work and the parental care with which he has guided me at every stage of its progress. He was ever ready with his invaluable suggestions, and was to me a never failing source of inspiration and encouragement. I therefore respectfully beg to tender to him here my most greateful thanks for all the trouble he has taken on my behalf.

About Volume II

This treatise in one of the early attempts by an archaeologist of our country for a diligent search into the origin, descriptions, symbols, mythological background, meaning and moral aims of Hindu images.

The book is in two volumes, each volume again in two parts. Vol. I, Part I contains a long Introduction discussing among other things the origin of Hindu image worship in India, explanatory description of the terms employed in the work, Ganapati, Visnu and his major and minor avataras and manifestations, Garuda and Ayudha-Purushas or personified images of the weapons and emblems held by gods. Vol. I, Part II deals with Aditya and Nava Grahas (nine planets) and their symbolic features and images worshipped, Devi (Goddesses), Parivara-devatas, and measurement of proportions in images. Vol. II, Part I begin with an Introduction discussing the cult of Siva, which is followed by such important topics as Siva, Lingas, Lingodbhavamurti, Chandrasekaharamurti, Pasupatamurti and Raudrapasupatamurti, other ugra forms of Siva, Dakshinamurti, Kankalamurit and Bhikshatanamurti, and other important aspects of Siva. Vol. II, Part II contains descriptions of Subrahmanya, Nandikesvara and Adhikaranandi, Chandesvara, Bhaktas, Arya or Harihaputra, Kshetrapalas, Brama, the Dipalakas and demo-gods.

In addition the book contains 5 Appendices, three in Vol.I, Part II and two in Vol. II, Part II, including Sanskrit texts of Parivaradevatah, Uttamadasatalabidhih and Pratimalaksanani.

The treatment has been made interesting by profuse illustrations, the two volumes containing as many as 282 photographs of sacred images.

Preface

In bringing out the Second Volume of the Elements of Hindu Iconography, the author earnestly trusts that it will meet with the same favorable reception that was uniformly accorded to the first volume both by savants and the Press, for which he begs to take this opportunity of tendering his heart-felt thanks. No pains have of course been spared to make the present publication as informing and interesting as is possible in the case of the abstruse subject of Iconography. Though the illustrations appearing in the present volume are by no means inadequate for the main purpose of the work, yet they are a word of explanation in that connection may not be out of place. To the great regret of the author, the liberal pecuniary help offered for the preparation and publication of the first volume has been, owing to the somewhat straitened finances of the Travancore State at present, withheld from him on the present occasion and he has, in consequence, not been able to embody as many illustrations as he had intended personally to gather for the purpose from various parts of India with a view to present to the public a series representative of the varied sculpture of the different parts of this country But the Travancore Durbar have, in gracious consideration of the trouble and labour involved in the preparation of the present volume, been pleased to permit its publication by the author himself, for which he begs to offer his respectful and grateful thanks to the Dewan, Mr. Dewan Bahadur M. Krishna Nair, B.A., B.L.

Mention may here be made of a few points worthy of notice in the book. In the Introduction is given a collective description of all the peculiarities of the tenets and observances of some of the Saiva sects of which the general public has hitherto been practically ignorant, and of certain other cults that have died out without a trace. The nature of Linga worship has been examined critically in the light of original texts gathered from such important sources as the Saivagamas, Saiva philosophical treatises, Puranas and Itihasa, and with reference to be extant sculpture of all ages of this symbol of worship, and the matter has been thoroughly discussed and, what the author ventures to claim to be, an impartial conclusion arrived at. In the body of the book, several matters, which will be seen to be quite new even to the informed Hindu, have been dealt with; to cite an instance, everybody known that Siva begged for food with the broken skull of Brahma as an expiation for sin of having cut off one of Brahma's heads, but it is doubtful if it is known why this curious sort of penance should have been resorted to by siva to get rid of His sin. Again, it has been found possible with the help of the knowledge derived from a close study of the bulk of the science of Natya-Sastra, together with commentaries thereon to elaborate and treat fully the manifold dances of Siva, though only eight or nine modes are described in the agamic and other works. The reader will, it is hoped, come across many other instances of fresh information being furnished on matters that have remained more or less obscure hitherto.

The author cannot be too thankful to the Proprietors of the Law Printing House for the extraordinary care and trouble they have bestowed upon the printing and general get up of the books and for their readiness in coming forward and generously offering their timely help but for which the volume could not have been brought out. The author cannot also omit to express his sense of gratitude to Dr. A. K. Anandakumaraswami, M.A., D.Sc., for the ready and willing permission granted to him for reproducing the valuable article on the dance of Siva, contributed some time ago to the Siddhanta-Dipika by the learned Doctor. He has also very great pleasure in recording here his high appreciation of the help cheerfully rendered by his Pandit Mr. V. Srinivasa Sastri, Smritivisarada, but for whose untiring industry and intelligent collaboration this work could not have been brought to a successful completion so soon. Messrs, Longhurst, Stoney, Kay and Beardsell, have been so very kind as to assist the author with photographs of images in their respective collections and to accord their gracious permission to reproduce them: to these gentlemen, the author offers his grateful thanks.

For reasons, which need not be explained here, it was not possible for the author personally to supervise the printing of the work throughout so as to ensure the presentation of an absolutely correct text; he had therefore to entrust the task to the printers themselves. In spite of the care and trouble ungrudgingly bestowed by them in the midst of their multifarious duties, a number of errors have unavoidably crept in. Though such of them as have been subsequently noticed are noted in the errata list, it is likely many more have escaped detection, for which the author craves the indulgence of his readers.