Indian Demonology The Inverted Pantheon

This is for the first time that Indian demonology and demon-lores, as found in the Vedic. Buddhist , Jain, Epic and Puranic sources have been presented in their entirety on the basis of original materials by N. N. Bhattacharyya who does not require any special introduction to the scholars. The present volume deals at length with the myths and legends pertaining to various kind of celestial, aerial and terrestrial demonical being such as the Asuras, Daityas, Danavas, Raksasas, yatudhanas, Dasas, Dasyus, Panis, Kalakeyas, Vidyadharas, Gandharvas, Yaksas, Apsarases,Rbhus Bhrgus, Angirases, Virupas, Garudas, Suparnas, Kiannaras, Nagas, Pannages,Kabandhas, Bhutas, Pretas, Pisacas,Pitrs, etc., as also various mythical apes, beasts, birds and reptiles, the Pramathas, Ganas, etc., of Siva, the blood-consuming matrkas and so forth and demonstrate how they have been subjected under diverse historical conditions to the processes of social, religious and cultural transformation and why the Indian demonology should be characterized as the 'inverted pantheon'. Like other works of Prof. Bhattacharyya, this one is also expected to evoke great interest among scholars, researchers and readers.

About the Author

Narendra Nath Bhatttacharyya does not require any special introduction in the field of indological studies. Through religious history in his forte he works at ease in diverse branches of ancient Indian history and civilization.

His important publication in English include Indian Puberty Rites, Indian Mother Goddess. History of Indian Cosmogonical ideas, Ancient Indian Rituals and their Social Contents, History of Indian Erotic Literature, Jain Philosophy: Historical outline, History of Researches on Indian Buddhism, History of Tantric Religion, A Glossary of Indian Religion Terms and Concept. Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Ancient Indian History and Civiligation: Trends and Prespectives, Buddism in the History of Indian Ideas, History of the sakta Religion, A Glossary of Indian Religious Terms and Concept, and Indian Religious Historiography.

He was edited R. P. Chanda's Indo-Aryan Races and N. C. Bandyopadhyay's Development of Hindu Polity and Political Theories. He has also edited Medieval Bhakti Movement in India, Jainism and Prakrit in Ancient and Medieval India, and Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Culture.

A retired professor of Calcutta University Dr. Bhattacharyya presided over the Ancient India section of the Indian History Congress in 1992.

Preface

The present volume deals at length with the myths and legends pertaining to various kids of celestial, aerial and terrestrial demons and demoniacal beings: Asuras, Danavas, Daityas, Raksasas, Yatudhanas, Dasas, Dasyus, Panis, Kalakeys, Gandharvas, Yaksas, Apsarases, Rbhus, Bhrgus, Angirases, Virupas, Garudas, Suparnas, Kinnaras, Vidyadharas, Nagas, Pannagad, Kabandhas, Bhutas, Pretas, Pisacas and Pitrs, as also mythical apes, beasts, birds and reptiles, the Pramathas and Ganas of Siva, the blood-consuming Matrkas, and so on. All such beings can be called 'demons' in English. In the introductory chapter it has been demonstrated, with references to regions and cultures outside Indian and to various non-Indian religious systems, that there is no clear-cut demarcation between demons and spirits on the one hand and gods and divine beings on the other. Although gods are supposed to be different from demons, confusion between the two is frequent everywhere and at all times. Indian demonology is vast and complex because India has not less than three hundred surviving tribes, each with mythology of gods, demons and spirits. The latter have been subjected, under diverse historical conditions, to the processes of social, religious and cultural transformation. Thus, we have a stratified demonology in which the characters have upward and downward movement and status in accordance with the upward and downward mobility of the detribalized castes in the social hierarchy. Those who reached the high status and proximity with the Sanskrit culture experienced a modification of their original tribal demonology on to which Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain elements are also grafted.

The Vedas contain not only various classes of demons which have characterized the 'inverted pantheon' through the ages, but also a number of demons who have attained celebrity in the epics and Puranas as well as in Buddhist and Jain literature. In Vedic mythology, belief in the reality of pre-Vedic native deities did not altogether disappear, and those gods whose worshippers had been hostile to the Vedic people or had opposed their deities, so as to be denounced in the texts, were reduced to the rank of demons. Though numerous disembodied spirits and their benevolent and malevolent potentialities pervade the Vedic literature, Vedic demonology is basically anthropomorphic, the characters being recruited from the gods of alien countries, races and religions, indigenous hostile tribes, natural phenomena, and the popular world of spirits. Like the Vedic gods, the demons also belong to three categories-celestial, atmospheric and terrestrial. They are the antitheses of the gods of the three categories, two sets representing respectively the two aspects of the same naturolatry. In the demoniacal hierarchy, in the Vedas as also in subsequent literature, the highest rank is given to the Asuras. The Asuras were historically a collateral branch of the Vedic Aryans, settled in Iran, and both the peoples inherited a common tradition. That is why the Vedic gods also bore the appellation Asura. The general term for demons in the Avesta is daeva, identical with Sanskrit deva which is however the term for gods. This direct opposition between Indian and Iranian terms is community, of which we have historical evidence. Despite hostilities between the Devas and the Asuras, however, the high position of the latter was due to their cultural proximity with former. The Raksasas and other classes of demonas were assigned to the lower ranks because they represented the indigenous non-Vedic cultures. The original term raksa, of which Raksasa is a derivative, denotes a 'protector', obviously of the indigenous beliefs, cults and rituals. That is why we find them as destroyers of Vedic sacrifices. But later they imbibed much of the Vedic culture and had an upward mobility in the hierarchy, even making matrimonial alliances with the Asuras. The functioning of this hierarchical process is found in the arrangement of the eight valid forms of marriage in which the Asura form is higher than the Raksasa form as the latter is higher than the Pisaca form. The Pisacas though associated with the Raksasas and often identified with them, belonged to an inferior category owing to their remoteness from the Brahmanical culture.

The figures of the Buddhist and Jain demonology, collected at random from the Vedic and popular sources, are indefinite in outline and vague in character. This is due to the fact that all their evil propensities have been purged. The Buddha himself seems to have taken over from the Brahmanical teachers of his time current belief in gods and demonas and held that like all other living things they were impermanent and ultimately subject to endless rebirth. Buddhism, however, required several demons and spirits to prove its superiority and the greatness of its founder. The Buddhist texts convey the idea that these evil beings causing harm to mankind were originally hostile to the Buddha, but after coming in touch with hi, underwent a complete transformation. They became devotees of the Buddha and under his all pervading influence used their special powers for the welfare of mankind.

The first category of Buddhist demons consists of the celestial and aerial beings, often described as gods, serving as the archangels of the Buddha. Here also the Asuras have a special place. Then there are Daityas, Raksasas, Gandharvas, Yaksas, Kumbhandas, Apsarases, etc. The Nagas or Mahogras, snake-like or dragon-like beings, resembling clouds, have a very important role in Buddhist demonology. There is also the concept of Mara, the personification of the evil principle and tempter of man, who presents an analogy to the Biblical Satan. Though unknown by that name in the Vedic literature, Mara is manifestly a form of Yama, the god of death. In the chapter dealing with Buddhist demonology, a few demoniacal deites of Tantric Buddhism have been mentioned. Contrary to the general expectation, the Tantras, whether Hindu or Buddhist, have no mythology, hence obviously no demon lore. There are many Tantric rites and concepts associated with the names of Bhutas, Pretas, Pisacas and other demonic beings, but these are all mental creations. All form of Tantric worship being symbolic, apart from the mind of the aspirant, neither the gods nor the demons have any separate existence.

Like the Buddha, the Jinas or Tirthamkaras also undertook to reform the demons and spirits, destroying their evil propensities and reemploying them in good works. As a reward for their services to the Jinas, the converted demons and spirits were raised to the rank of gods. All classes of demons are useful in the Jain scheme of the functioning of the universe. In fact it was the demons who repaired and restored the ruined Jain shrines, constructed magnificent statues of the Tirthamkaras and established the Jain faith. Those who had unflinching devotion to the creed were the companions of the Jinas, especially of Lord Mahavira, whose entourage consisted not only of the Vedic gods but of the Asuras, Raksasas, Yaksas, Nagas and others.

That the Vedic gods were subordinated to the Buddha and Mahavira and equated with demons did not escape the notice of the Puranic writers who were hostile to Buddhism and Jainism. In order to malign the Buddhists and Jains, the authors of the Puranas invented a story. Since the demons became virtuous and steadfast on the principles laid down in the Vedas and hence invincible even to Visnu or Siva, the gods conspired to weaken their source of strength by tempting them from the path of virtue having sent to them shaven-headed religious teachers who converted them to the apparently attractive doctrines of Buddhism and Jainism. Misled by the philosophical, ethical and eschatological jargon moral strength was lost and they became vulnerable. The Yaksas and Yaksinis, along with the Bhutas, Pretas and Pisacas, have a special place in Jainism and Buddhism. According to some Jain texts the Bhutas were marketable commodities. The gods, angels, men, demons and spirits and even animals are conditioned by the fetters of their karma, according to which a demon may be reborn as a god and a god as a demon. Although Jainism and Buddhism held that external agencies, either of the gods or of the demons, have nothing to do with human destiny, these systems found it necessary to utilize popular beliefs and sentiments regarding the demons and spirits.

In the two great epics we come across an elaborate demon lore in which the nebulous conceptions found in the Vedic literature and the idealized version tailored to suit the Buddhists and Jains have been greatly modified. It is in the epics that we come across the beginnings of a regular cycle in which the earlier translucent myths have been rendered into understandable and entertaining legends. Epic demonology has two distinct categories in the first category we have older Vedic demons like Vrtra, who were slain by the gods. The epics make an attempt to explain the obscure portions of the older myths by grafting on to them new legendary materials. The second category pertains to the demons killed by Rama, Bhima, Arjuna or some other hero. The attitude of the epic poets to the demons is rather ambivalent. The higher demons are not exactly evil forces. Many individual Asuras maintain a very high standard of character and morality. Some demons are considered 'fallen angels' in the sense that they were originally gods or human beings or celestial entities, compelled to become demons owing to curses inflicted on them for their misdeeds. In some cases they were friendly to the gods while in others they were hostile. They believed in meditation, prayer and austerities. They were favoured by Brahma who increased their strength by granting them boons. The demons had matrimonial alliances with human beings and also with gods. Even Indra's wife was the daughter of a demons. The demons did not originally believe in the varna system, but later owing to their proximity to Brahmanical culture, the higher demons were regarded as of Brahmana origin. Apart from the Asuras of the Daitya and Danava categories and the Raksasas, the epics, especially the Mahabharata, contains numerous narratives about the Gandharvas, Yaksas, Apsarases, Nagas and demoniac beasts and birds. The Bhutas, Pretas and Pisacas have no specific legends of their own, but their presence in connection with various battles are conspicuous. The Pisacas are described as lower forms of the Raksasas, while the Raksasas of higher ranks are equated with the Asuras, if not the gods. The epic poets attribute grotesque figures, cannibalism and other repugnant practices to them. otherwise it would have been difficult for them to distinguish between the Raksasas and gods who were also equally power-loving, selfish, cruel, greedy and seducers of women. The Ramayana is in essence a Raksasa lore, and Raksasa civilization as described in this epic is worthy of historical consideration.

The epics are the main sources of Puranic demonology. Epic tales pertaining to the fights between the gods and the demons are elaborated and fabricated in the Puranas. Certain points are to be kept in mind in this connection. The traditional number of gods is thirty-three, and the same is the traditional number of Asuras. The gods were defeated many times by the Asuras, but they did not die because they had drunk amrta, the nectar of immortality. The Asuras were undoubtedly slain by the gods, but the important Asuras, apart from Hiranyakasipu and his poor imitation Hiranyaksa, did not die for ever. The reason may be that their preceptor Sukra by his special power restored them to life. When one of them became the lord of the Asuras, others, including the great demons of hoary antiquity, fought the gods. The popularity of the Puranic demons of hoary antiquity, fought the gods. The popularity of the Puranic demon lore is attested by scultpure. Varaha, Narasimha and Vamana incarnations of Visnu as separate figures are more common than the others. The Boar incarnation is represented in several ways, the principal modes being theriomorphic and hybrid. The Narasimha form in which Visnu killed Hiranyakasipu is always represented as a hybrid form, a lion head and human body. Sculptures representing the Vamana incarnation in which Visnu subdued Bali, fall under two categories, one the dwarf (vamana) and the other the huge colossus (viratarupa) about to take three steps (trivikrama). Among images portraying Siva's terrific nature mention may be made of Gajasurasamhara-murti, Tripurantaka-murti, Andhakasuravadha-murti, Kalari-murti and Kamantaka-murti. The first three portray the destruction of demons like Gajasura, the three Asuras of the three forts (tripura) and Andhakasura. Some of the finest sculptures of the early medieval period represent these motifs and the much-mutilated Ellora and Elephanta panels depicting Tripurantaka and Andhakasuravadha-murtis reach sublime heights of artistic creation. Among the demon-slaying forms of the Devi, Mahisasuramardini images with eight or ten hands are most popular.

Puranic demonology will be discussed below in three chapters. In the Puranic demon lore greatest importance has been laid on demons of the Asura category. The Raksasas are less prominent. In fact with the destruction of Ravana, Raksasas began to receive diminishing importance. The Gandharvas, Yaksas and Nagas are present in the Puranas, but the Puranic authors did not remake their stories because they had other compulsions. The Vaisnavite Puranas deal with the exploits of Visnu in his different incarnations, slaying Narakasura, Hiranyaksa and Hiranyakasipu, and subjugating Bali, Krsna's killing of Putana and subjugation of Kaliya, and slaying of demons such as Pralamba, Arista, Kesi, Kamsa, Vajranabha, Bana and others. Credit of slaying many demons goes to Balarama, Pradyumna, Samba and Aniruddha in the Vaisnavite Puranas. Some of the exploits of Krsna have sculptural representations as also the slaying of Dhenuka by Balarama. Again, in the Saivite Puranas we have the adventures of Siva. His greatest achievements were the destruction of Tripura and the slaying of Andhakasura, both themes being well represented in sculpture. The credit of killing Taraka goes to Kumara or Skanda-Karttikeya, but this is mainly a Saivite story. In the Saivite legends the Bhutas, Pretas and Pisacas have joined Siva, leaving their natural allies, as Siva had many features in common with the demons. During the fight against the demons Siva was helped by Visnu as the latter by the former. Sometimes they had confrontations between themselves, as is evident in the case of the Asura Bana. In the Sakta Puranas, the Devi or Sakti, variously known as Ambika, Candika, Kausiki, or Kalika, born of the collective energy of the gods, is the supreme demon killer. She slays the demons Mahisa, Sumbha, Nisumbha, Canda-Munda, Dhumralocana, Raktavija and Durgama.

We have divided the Puranas chronologically into three groups treating each group individually. The recurrence of the same characters and deeds in all three chapters could have been a matter of monotony to the readers but, fortunately, so far as the legends are concerned, we come across a progressive multifariousness in the contents. This has helped us determine the chronology of the Puranas. For example, the superfluity of the account of the slaying of the demon by the Devi was first formulated. That the Markandeva again should be placed a few centuries after the Mahabharata is attested by the fact that in the great epic the slayer of Mahisa was Skanda-Karttikeya and not the Devi. In fact the concept of the demon-slaying goddess had not yet developed in the age of the Mahabharata. Even Kalidasa was probably unaware of this concept.

My thanks are due to Sri Ramesh Jain and Sri Ajay Jain of Manohar Publishers & Distributors for bringing out this volume so nicely. My colleague, pupil and friend Dr. Ranabir Chakravarti has taken keen interest on this work and helped me with his valuable suggestions. My daughter Dr. Parnasabari Bhattacharyya has helped me write this book. Owing to her Asiatic Society connection I was able to handle rare editions of some important texts. As a Visiting Fellow in the Centre of Vedic Studies, Rabindra Bharati University, I could utilize its valuable collection of the Vedic texts. As a Visiting Fellow in the Centre of Vedic Studies, Rabindra Bharati University, I could utilize its valuable collection of the Vedic texts for which I am grateful to its Director, Prof. Samiran Chandra Chakravarti. I am also indebted to Dr. Dipak Chatterjee, Deptt. Of Sanskrit, Burdwan University, who has helped me check the references. While I was working on this subject there were some unexpected happenings in my favour which I ought to attribute to the kindness of the demons to me. In spite of my best efforts some mistakes and blemishes must have crept into this book for which I crave the indulgence of my readers. The views expressed in this book are mine, and so are all its errors.