Introduction
The records, found incised on the walls of some of
these caves, furnish the supreme evidence of the existence of a powerful
dynasty, the Chetis (Chedis).
They reveal that some time in the first century B C or slightly earlier, the rulers of the Cheti dynasty, who called themselves Mahameghavahanas,
came into power in Kalinga. Of the rulers of the
dynasty, only the names of Kharavela and Kudepasiri (or Vakradeva),
together with that of a prince, Vadukha, are known
from the inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves, though
their mutual relationship is not known. While Kudepasiri
and Vadukha are known only as the donors of two of
the cells of the lower storey of Cave 9 (Manchapuri)
of Udayagiri, many details are available about Kharavela from his famous inscription engraved on the brow
of the rock over Cave 14 (Hathigumpha) of the same
hill. The inscription, in seventeen lines, is largely defaced and indistinct,
with the result that its full text cannot be made out and its interpretation is
not always above doubt. But the following facts seem to be well-established.
The third king of his dynasty, Kharavela
was a powerful ruler. As a prince, he acquired great proficiency in games and
received good education. He was installed as yuvaraja (crown prince) when he was
sixteen and succeeded to the throne when he was twenty-five. Almost immediately
thereafter he launched Kalinga on an ambitious career
of conquest, leading expeditions far and wide. In the second year of his rule
he led his troops to the west without caring for the Satavahana
king Satakarni and reached the river Krishna, where
he threatened the city of Asika. In his fourth year
he captured the capital of a prince named Vidyadhara
and subdued the Rashtrikas and Bhojakas
in the north Deccan. Four years later, he stormed Gorathagiri
(Barabar hills, District Gaya) and harassed the ruler
of Rajagriha (Rajgir,
District Nalanda). A Yavana
(Indo-Greek) king is said to have fled to Mathura out of fear. In his eleventh
year he destroyed the city of Pithuda (Masulipatam region) and next year threatened the rulers of Uttarapatha (north India) and defeated King Bahasatimita of Magadha (south Bihar). He brought back with
him booty from Anga (east Bihar) and Magadha,
including a Jaina cult object
(Kalinga-Jina), which had been taken away
long ago by Nanda, the ruler of Magadha. Next he snatched treasures from the Pandyan king in the extreme south. Thus, the brunt of Kharavela's sword was felt throughout a large part of
India.
Kharavela was as great in peace as in
war. In the first year of his rule he rebuilt the gates and walls of Kalinganagara, his capital, which had been devastated by a
cyclone. In the fifth year he enlarged a canal, said to have been excavated by
a Nanda king three hundred years ago. In the Kumari-parvata
(Udayagiri-Khandagiri) he excavated, in the
thirteenth year, caves for Jaina ascetics and erected
at an enormous cost, on the praghhara in the neighbourhood of the
monastic retreats, a certain structure with hundreds of stones collected from
different quarries and pillars with core of eat's eye
gem. No doubt Kharavela was a ruler of great
accomplishments.
In spite of his claiming an eclectic attitude by
honouring all sects and repairing temples of all gods, Kharavela
was undoubtedly a Jaina and espoused with great zeal
the cause of his faith, which appeared to have been the state religion of Kalinga and which had received a set-back not only when the
Nandas of Magadha (fourth century BC) carried away the Jina of Kalinga,
probably as a trophy, but also with Buddhism gaining foothold under the Mauryan king Asoka (circa 273-36 BC) when he annexed Kalinga to his empire.
It is obvious that during the rule of the Mahameghavahanas the hills were honeycombed with caves. The
activities of Kudepasiri and Vadukha
have been mentioned above (p. 3). In addition, Kharavela's
chief queen is known to have been the donor of the upper storey of Cave 9 (Svargapuri) of Udayagiri. It is
also almost certain that the majority of the caves originated during this
period. At the same time, an earlier origin of the Jaina
establishment on the hills is not entirely ruled out. It is also not unlikely
that the K alinga-Jina removed by the Nanda king
and recovered by Kharavela (p. 4) had its original
enshrinement on the hills and was reinstalled here by Kharavela.
After the fall of the Mahameghavahana dynasty, Jainism is not
known to have enjoyed royal patronage, but the religion doubtless continued to
have its stronghold on the hills, despite the political vicissitudes through
which the country passed. The rise of the Lakulisa-Pasupata
sect, which transformed Bhubaneswar into a Saiva
centre and the growing influence of which was ultimately responsible for the
decline of Buddhism in that city and its surroundings, hardly affected this Jaina centre, which, inscriptions show, continued to be
inhabited under the Bhaumas and their successors, the
Somavarhsis. However, during the rule of the latter, Khandagiri, called Kumaraparvata
in an inscription of the fifth year of Udyotakesari
(eleventh century) in Cave 11, acquired greater prominence.!
and a few of the old cells were converted into
sanctuaries by the carving of reliefs of Tirthankaras
and the sasanadeuis on the walls. This period also saw
the construction of structural temples, suggested not only by the
abovementioned inscription recording the setting up of the images of
twenty-four Tirthankaras, but also by the discovery
of a large number of nude chlorite images of different Tirthankaras
and enormous numbers of architectural fragments lying in some areas on the hill
(p. 69). The prolonged Digambara association of the Khandagiri caves during the reign of the Gangas and their successors, the Gajapatis,
is proved by the crude reliefs of the Tirthankaras on
the walls of Cave 9 (Trisula-gumpha) of Khandagiri, which are not earlier in date than the
fifteenth century and may be even later. Evidence regarding the cells being
tenanted in this period by the monastic fraternities is, however, lacking.
The period thereafter is blank in the history of Khandagiri till the construction of the temple on the crest
(p. 71). Stirling, who noticed the temple in 1825, noted it as 'a neat stone
temple of modern construction'. He does not make any mention of Jaina monks living in the caves, though the place was
'frequented by the Jain or Parwar merchants of
Cuttack, who assemble here in numbers, once every year, to hold a festival of
their religion'. It is thus evident that the Jaina
occupation of the hill was continuous, if with occasional breaks, from even
before the time of Kharavela down to the present day.
Contents
General
information |
1 |
Introduction |
3 |
History |
3 |
Architecture |
7 |
Art |
14 |
Religion |
15 |
Social
life |
17 |
The Udayagiri monuments |
20 |
Cave 1
(Rani-gumpha) |
20 |
The
lower storey |
21 |
The
upper storey |
25 |
Cave 2
(Bajaghara-gumpha) |
31 |
Cave 3
(Chhota-Hathi-gumpha) |
31 |
Cave 4
(Alakapuri-gumpha) |
32 |
Cave 5
(Jaya-Vijaya-gumpha) |
33 |
Cave 6
(Panasa-gumpha) |
34 |
Cave 7
(Thakuranr-gumpha) |
35 |
Cave 8
(Patalapurt-gumpha) |
35 |
Cave 9
(Mafichapuri and Svargapuri) |
36 |
The
lower storey |
36 |
The
upper storey |
38 |
Cave
10 (Ganesa-gumpha) |
39 |
The
apsidal structure |
43 |
Cave
11 (JambeSvara-gumpha) |
44 |
Cave
12 (Bagh-gumpha) |
45 |
Cave
13 (Sarpa-gumpha) |
45 |
Cave
14 (Hathi-gumpha) |
46 |
Cave
15 (Dhanaghara-gumpha) |
46 |
Cave
16 (Haridasa-gumpha) |
47 |
Cave
17 Oagannatha-gumpha) |
48 |
Cave
18 (Rasui-gumpha) |
49 |
The Khandagiri monuments |
50 |
Cave I
(Tatowa-gumpha 1) |
50 |
Cave 2
(Tatowa-gumpha 2) |
51 |
Cave 3
(Ananta-gumpha) |
52 |
Cave 4
(Tentuli-gumpha) |
57 |
Cave 5
(Khandagiri-gumpha) |
57 |
Cave 6
(Dhyana-ghara, Dhyana-gumpha
or Shell- cave) |
58 |
Cave 7
(Navamuni-gumpha) |
58 |
Cave 8
(Barabhuji-gumpha) |
61 |
Cave 9
(Triswa-gumpha, Satbakhra
or Mahavira- gumpha) |
65 |
Cave
10 |
67 |
Cave
11 (Lalatendukesarf-gumpha) |
68 |
Caves
12-15 and other minor monuments |
69 |
The Jaina temple and Deva-sabha |
70 |
Select
bibliography |
74 |
Introduction
The records, found incised on the walls of some of
these caves, furnish the supreme evidence of the existence of a powerful
dynasty, the Chetis (Chedis).
They reveal that some time in the first century B C or slightly earlier, the rulers of the Cheti dynasty, who called themselves Mahameghavahanas,
came into power in Kalinga. Of the rulers of the
dynasty, only the names of Kharavela and Kudepasiri (or Vakradeva),
together with that of a prince, Vadukha, are known
from the inscriptions in the Udayagiri caves, though
their mutual relationship is not known. While Kudepasiri
and Vadukha are known only as the donors of two of
the cells of the lower storey of Cave 9 (Manchapuri)
of Udayagiri, many details are available about Kharavela from his famous inscription engraved on the brow
of the rock over Cave 14 (Hathigumpha) of the same
hill. The inscription, in seventeen lines, is largely defaced and indistinct,
with the result that its full text cannot be made out and its interpretation is
not always above doubt. But the following facts seem to be well-established.
The third king of his dynasty, Kharavela
was a powerful ruler. As a prince, he acquired great proficiency in games and
received good education. He was installed as yuvaraja (crown prince) when he was
sixteen and succeeded to the throne when he was twenty-five. Almost immediately
thereafter he launched Kalinga on an ambitious career
of conquest, leading expeditions far and wide. In the second year of his rule
he led his troops to the west without caring for the Satavahana
king Satakarni and reached the river Krishna, where
he threatened the city of Asika. In his fourth year
he captured the capital of a prince named Vidyadhara
and subdued the Rashtrikas and Bhojakas
in the north Deccan. Four years later, he stormed Gorathagiri
(Barabar hills, District Gaya) and harassed the ruler
of Rajagriha (Rajgir,
District Nalanda). A Yavana
(Indo-Greek) king is said to have fled to Mathura out of fear. In his eleventh
year he destroyed the city of Pithuda (Masulipatam region) and next year threatened the rulers of Uttarapatha (north India) and defeated King Bahasatimita of Magadha (south Bihar). He brought back with
him booty from Anga (east Bihar) and Magadha,
including a Jaina cult object
(Kalinga-Jina), which had been taken away
long ago by Nanda, the ruler of Magadha. Next he snatched treasures from the Pandyan king in the extreme south. Thus, the brunt of Kharavela's sword was felt throughout a large part of
India.
Kharavela was as great in peace as in
war. In the first year of his rule he rebuilt the gates and walls of Kalinganagara, his capital, which had been devastated by a
cyclone. In the fifth year he enlarged a canal, said to have been excavated by
a Nanda king three hundred years ago. In the Kumari-parvata
(Udayagiri-Khandagiri) he excavated, in the
thirteenth year, caves for Jaina ascetics and erected
at an enormous cost, on the praghhara in the neighbourhood of the
monastic retreats, a certain structure with hundreds of stones collected from
different quarries and pillars with core of eat's eye
gem. No doubt Kharavela was a ruler of great
accomplishments.
In spite of his claiming an eclectic attitude by
honouring all sects and repairing temples of all gods, Kharavela
was undoubtedly a Jaina and espoused with great zeal
the cause of his faith, which appeared to have been the state religion of Kalinga and which had received a set-back not only when the
Nandas of Magadha (fourth century BC) carried away the Jina of Kalinga,
probably as a trophy, but also with Buddhism gaining foothold under the Mauryan king Asoka (circa 273-36 BC) when he annexed Kalinga to his empire.
It is obvious that during the rule of the Mahameghavahanas the hills were honeycombed with caves. The
activities of Kudepasiri and Vadukha
have been mentioned above (p. 3). In addition, Kharavela's
chief queen is known to have been the donor of the upper storey of Cave 9 (Svargapuri) of Udayagiri. It is
also almost certain that the majority of the caves originated during this
period. At the same time, an earlier origin of the Jaina
establishment on the hills is not entirely ruled out. It is also not unlikely
that the K alinga-Jina removed by the Nanda king
and recovered by Kharavela (p. 4) had its original
enshrinement on the hills and was reinstalled here by Kharavela.
After the fall of the Mahameghavahana dynasty, Jainism is not
known to have enjoyed royal patronage, but the religion doubtless continued to
have its stronghold on the hills, despite the political vicissitudes through
which the country passed. The rise of the Lakulisa-Pasupata
sect, which transformed Bhubaneswar into a Saiva
centre and the growing influence of which was ultimately responsible for the
decline of Buddhism in that city and its surroundings, hardly affected this Jaina centre, which, inscriptions show, continued to be
inhabited under the Bhaumas and their successors, the
Somavarhsis. However, during the rule of the latter, Khandagiri, called Kumaraparvata
in an inscription of the fifth year of Udyotakesari
(eleventh century) in Cave 11, acquired greater prominence.!
and a few of the old cells were converted into
sanctuaries by the carving of reliefs of Tirthankaras
and the sasanadeuis on the walls. This period also saw
the construction of structural temples, suggested not only by the
abovementioned inscription recording the setting up of the images of
twenty-four Tirthankaras, but also by the discovery
of a large number of nude chlorite images of different Tirthankaras
and enormous numbers of architectural fragments lying in some areas on the hill
(p. 69). The prolonged Digambara association of the Khandagiri caves during the reign of the Gangas and their successors, the Gajapatis,
is proved by the crude reliefs of the Tirthankaras on
the walls of Cave 9 (Trisula-gumpha) of Khandagiri, which are not earlier in date than the
fifteenth century and may be even later. Evidence regarding the cells being
tenanted in this period by the monastic fraternities is, however, lacking.
The period thereafter is blank in the history of Khandagiri till the construction of the temple on the crest
(p. 71). Stirling, who noticed the temple in 1825, noted it as 'a neat stone
temple of modern construction'. He does not make any mention of Jaina monks living in the caves, though the place was
'frequented by the Jain or Parwar merchants of
Cuttack, who assemble here in numbers, once every year, to hold a festival of
their religion'. It is thus evident that the Jaina
occupation of the hill was continuous, if with occasional breaks, from even
before the time of Kharavela down to the present day.
Contents
General
information |
1 |
Introduction |
3 |
History |
3 |
Architecture |
7 |
Art |
14 |
Religion |
15 |
Social
life |
17 |
The Udayagiri monuments |
20 |
Cave 1
(Rani-gumpha) |
20 |
The
lower storey |
21 |
The
upper storey |
25 |
Cave 2
(Bajaghara-gumpha) |
31 |
Cave 3
(Chhota-Hathi-gumpha) |
31 |
Cave 4
(Alakapuri-gumpha) |
32 |
Cave 5
(Jaya-Vijaya-gumpha) |
33 |
Cave 6
(Panasa-gumpha) |
34 |
Cave 7
(Thakuranr-gumpha) |
35 |
Cave 8
(Patalapurt-gumpha) |
35 |
Cave 9
(Mafichapuri and Svargapuri) |
36 |
The
lower storey |
36 |
The
upper storey |
38 |
Cave
10 (Ganesa-gumpha) |
39 |
The
apsidal structure |
43 |
Cave
11 (JambeSvara-gumpha) |
44 |
Cave
12 (Bagh-gumpha) |
45 |
Cave
13 (Sarpa-gumpha) |
45 |
Cave
14 (Hathi-gumpha) |
46 |
Cave
15 (Dhanaghara-gumpha) |
46 |
Cave
16 (Haridasa-gumpha) |
47 |
Cave
17 Oagannatha-gumpha) |
48 |
Cave
18 (Rasui-gumpha) |
49 |
The Khandagiri monuments |
50 |
Cave I
(Tatowa-gumpha 1) |
50 |
Cave 2
(Tatowa-gumpha 2) |
51 |
Cave 3
(Ananta-gumpha) |
52 |
Cave 4
(Tentuli-gumpha) |
57 |
Cave 5
(Khandagiri-gumpha) |
57 |
Cave 6
(Dhyana-ghara, Dhyana-gumpha
or Shell- cave) |
58 |
Cave 7
(Navamuni-gumpha) |
58 |
Cave 8
(Barabhuji-gumpha) |
61 |
Cave 9
(Triswa-gumpha, Satbakhra
or Mahavira- gumpha) |
65 |
Cave
10 |
67 |
Cave
11 (Lalatendukesarf-gumpha) |
68 |
Caves
12-15 and other minor monuments |
69 |
The Jaina temple and Deva-sabha |
70 |
Select
bibliography |
74 |