What do the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism have to say about the most basic psychological processes through which alternatives are assessed, purposes are developed, and goal-oriented acts are initiated? How can Theravada make volitional endeavour central to Buddhist practice, while denying the existence of a self who wills? How can the texts emphasize ethical striving, and yet uphold the principle that all physical and mental acts arise through causes and conditions? This book adds another perspective to Theravada scholarship by exploring various subtle Pali terms that seek to display the nuances of human motivation. Cetana is shown to be the purposive impetus that links ethically good and bad attitudes of mind with corresponding acts of body, speech, and mind. The argument is made that Theravada does not posit a controlling will, but seeks to establish the possibility of changing attitudes, purposes, and acts through holistic methods of training. Theravada maintains that changes in attitude are possible because the mind has the capacity to observe its own processes of conditioning, and is able to greatly diversify its responses to its own concepts and to factors in its environment.
Nalini Devdas was born in Bangalore, India. For over two decades she was an Associate Professor in the Department of Religion of Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada. Her research continues to be focused on the relationship between psychology and ethics in the Pali texts of Theravada Buddhism.
Acknowledgements | vii |
A Note on Transliteration | xv |
Abbreviations | xv |
Introduction: Cetana in Modern Theravada Scholarship | 1 |
Approaches to the Concept of Volition in Modern Theravada Scholarship | 10 |
Some Modern Interpretations of Cetana | 25 |
Cetana and the "Tthicization" of the Idea of Kamma | |
Working Definitions of Key Terms | 32 |
Chapter I: Concept of Volition in the Upanisads | 41 |
The Possibility of Volitional Endeavour in the Realm of Ignorance and Rebirth | 43 |
The Dynamic Unity of the Mind and Its Components | 44 |
Samkalpa (Conceptualization, Intention) | 51 |
"Ethicization" of the Idea of Karma | 55 |
Kama, Samkalpa, and Kratu in the Process of Rebirth | 57 |
Kratu and Sankhara | 61 |
Conclusion | 62 |
Chapter II: Buddhist Debates with Early Jainas | 70 |
Debate on the Efficacy of Ascetic Endeavour in Controlling the Mind | 71 |
Debate on the Moral Significance of Intention and Act | 78 |
Virya and Volition in Jainism | 82 |
Debate on Whether the Processes of Kamma Negate Human Initiative | 83 |
Debates Regarding the Nature and Ultimate Basis of the Capacity to Initiate Action | 88 |
Comprehensive Definition of Action in Early Jainism and in the Suttas | 91 |
Primacy of Intention Upheld in the Vinaya-pitaka and the Kathavatthu | 93 |
Conclusion | 96 |
Chapter III: Conditioned Origination and Cetana | 102 |
Cetana in the Holistic View of Consciousness Represented by Citta | 104 |
Conflict and Control in the Citta | 110 |
The Mind’s Capacity to Know Itself | 114 |
Thought and Volition as Functions of Manas | 116 |
Conditioned Origination and Interpretation of Sankhara | 121 |
Sankharas as Processes of "Combining" and "Constructing" | 124 |
"Subliminal Impression" in the Yoga Tradition and "Mental Formation" in Theravada | 128 |
Sankhara as Intentional Act | 133 |
The Influence of Asavas and Anusayas on the Dynamics of Motivation | 137 |
The Arising of Uncorrupted Mental States | 141 |
Anusayas as Factors of Motivation Within Conditioned Origination | 146 |
The Conditioned Arising of Anusayas | 150 |
Anusaya and Cetana | 153 |
Anusayas and the Question of "Unconscious" Motivation | 156 |
Conclusion | 162 |
Chapter IV: Cetana in the Sutta Literature | 177 |
Cetana as Basic Sentience | 179 |
Cetana as Intention Imbued with Impetus to Act | 183 |
The Formative Role of Sankharas in the Processes of Kamma | 192 |
Cetana Made Concrete in Kamma | 197 |
Cetana Defined as Kamma in the Milindapanha | 212 |
Cetana and the Eightfold Path | 216 |
Conclusion | 224 |
Chapter V: Dynamics of Motivation in the Suttas | 236 |
Motivational Sequences in the Suttas | 237 |
Motivational Processes and the "Inclination of the Mind" | 244 |
Motivation That Goes "Against the Current" | 246 |
"Subduing the Mind by the Mind" | 250 |
Mindfulness and the Transformation of Mind | 253 |
Wisdom and Motivation | 256 |
Conclusion | 262 |
Chapter VI: Cetana and Attitudes of Mind: Abhidhamma Perspectives | 267 |
Holistic Approach to Consciousness in the Abhidhamma | 270 |
Cetana Regarded as Common to All States of Consciousness | 274 |
Definition of "Wholesome" | 278 |
Wholesome and Unwholesome "Roots" | 285 |
The Composition of Wholesome States of Mind | 289 |
Eight Types of Wholesome Cittas and Cetanas | 293 |
The Inner Dynamics of Unwholesome States of Mind | 295 |
Twelve Unwholesome Cittas and Cetanas | 300 |
Relationship Between Feeling (Vedana) and Cetana | 302 |
Planes of Consciousness | 306 |
The Concept of "Ethically Indeterminate" | 309 |
Cetana and the Cognitive Process | 313 |
Fusion of Perception and Purposive Impetus in Cognitive Processes | 317 |
Javana and "Freedom of Will" | 32 |
Conclusion | 325 |
Chapter VII: Cetana and the Mind’s Dynamic Capacities | 339 |
Connotations of Ayuhana in the Definitions of Cetana and Sankhara | 343 |
Cetana in the Classification Sankharas | 349 |
The Identification of Purposive Impulse (Cetana) with Morally Weighted Act (Kamma) | 353 |
Cetana and the Process of Rebirth | 357 |
The Connecting Role of Cetanas | 361 |
Conclusion | 363 |
Chapter VIII: Defining Cetana | 369 |
Definitions of Cetana in Atthasalini and Visuddhimagga | 372 |
Cetana Defined as Motivating Impulse | 377 |
Identifying Cetana with Kamma | 380 |
Cetana at the Beginning, Middle, and End of an Act | 385 |
Moral Responsibility for Mental Mamma | 387 |
The Fallacy of Two Purposive Impulses in a Single Purposive Act | 391 |
Kamma Redefined as Cetana and Associated Mental States | 393 |
Classification of Factors Associated with Cetana in the Nettippakarana | 396 |
Purposive Impulse as the Dynamic Mode of an Attitude of Mind | 400 |
Confluence of Purpose and Conative Impetus in Cetana | 403 |
Cetana and Moral Responsibility for Action | 406 |
Conclusion | 409 |
Chapter IX: Cetana and Other Pali Terms Indicating Motivation | 417 |
Adhimokkha | 418 |
Chanda | 420 |
Sankappa | 423 |
Cetana Compared with ‘Terms That Indicate Capacity to Initiate Goal-Directed Action | 426 |
Viriya | 427 |
Differentiating Craving (Tanha) from Cetana | 431 |
Conclusion | 435 |
Conclusion | 420 |
Charts | 467 |
Glossary | 484 |
Bibliography | 492 |
General Index | 514 |
What do the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism have to say about the most basic psychological processes through which alternatives are assessed, purposes are developed, and goal-oriented acts are initiated? How can Theravada make volitional endeavour central to Buddhist practice, while denying the existence of a self who wills? How can the texts emphasize ethical striving, and yet uphold the principle that all physical and mental acts arise through causes and conditions? This book adds another perspective to Theravada scholarship by exploring various subtle Pali terms that seek to display the nuances of human motivation. Cetana is shown to be the purposive impetus that links ethically good and bad attitudes of mind with corresponding acts of body, speech, and mind. The argument is made that Theravada does not posit a controlling will, but seeks to establish the possibility of changing attitudes, purposes, and acts through holistic methods of training. Theravada maintains that changes in attitude are possible because the mind has the capacity to observe its own processes of conditioning, and is able to greatly diversify its responses to its own concepts and to factors in its environment.
Nalini Devdas was born in Bangalore, India. For over two decades she was an Associate Professor in the Department of Religion of Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada. Her research continues to be focused on the relationship between psychology and ethics in the Pali texts of Theravada Buddhism.
Acknowledgements | vii |
A Note on Transliteration | xv |
Abbreviations | xv |
Introduction: Cetana in Modern Theravada Scholarship | 1 |
Approaches to the Concept of Volition in Modern Theravada Scholarship | 10 |
Some Modern Interpretations of Cetana | 25 |
Cetana and the "Tthicization" of the Idea of Kamma | |
Working Definitions of Key Terms | 32 |
Chapter I: Concept of Volition in the Upanisads | 41 |
The Possibility of Volitional Endeavour in the Realm of Ignorance and Rebirth | 43 |
The Dynamic Unity of the Mind and Its Components | 44 |
Samkalpa (Conceptualization, Intention) | 51 |
"Ethicization" of the Idea of Karma | 55 |
Kama, Samkalpa, and Kratu in the Process of Rebirth | 57 |
Kratu and Sankhara | 61 |
Conclusion | 62 |
Chapter II: Buddhist Debates with Early Jainas | 70 |
Debate on the Efficacy of Ascetic Endeavour in Controlling the Mind | 71 |
Debate on the Moral Significance of Intention and Act | 78 |
Virya and Volition in Jainism | 82 |
Debate on Whether the Processes of Kamma Negate Human Initiative | 83 |
Debates Regarding the Nature and Ultimate Basis of the Capacity to Initiate Action | 88 |
Comprehensive Definition of Action in Early Jainism and in the Suttas | 91 |
Primacy of Intention Upheld in the Vinaya-pitaka and the Kathavatthu | 93 |
Conclusion | 96 |
Chapter III: Conditioned Origination and Cetana | 102 |
Cetana in the Holistic View of Consciousness Represented by Citta | 104 |
Conflict and Control in the Citta | 110 |
The Mind’s Capacity to Know Itself | 114 |
Thought and Volition as Functions of Manas | 116 |
Conditioned Origination and Interpretation of Sankhara | 121 |
Sankharas as Processes of "Combining" and "Constructing" | 124 |
"Subliminal Impression" in the Yoga Tradition and "Mental Formation" in Theravada | 128 |
Sankhara as Intentional Act | 133 |
The Influence of Asavas and Anusayas on the Dynamics of Motivation | 137 |
The Arising of Uncorrupted Mental States | 141 |
Anusayas as Factors of Motivation Within Conditioned Origination | 146 |
The Conditioned Arising of Anusayas | 150 |
Anusaya and Cetana | 153 |
Anusayas and the Question of "Unconscious" Motivation | 156 |
Conclusion | 162 |
Chapter IV: Cetana in the Sutta Literature | 177 |
Cetana as Basic Sentience | 179 |
Cetana as Intention Imbued with Impetus to Act | 183 |
The Formative Role of Sankharas in the Processes of Kamma | 192 |
Cetana Made Concrete in Kamma | 197 |
Cetana Defined as Kamma in the Milindapanha | 212 |
Cetana and the Eightfold Path | 216 |
Conclusion | 224 |
Chapter V: Dynamics of Motivation in the Suttas | 236 |
Motivational Sequences in the Suttas | 237 |
Motivational Processes and the "Inclination of the Mind" | 244 |
Motivation That Goes "Against the Current" | 246 |
"Subduing the Mind by the Mind" | 250 |
Mindfulness and the Transformation of Mind | 253 |
Wisdom and Motivation | 256 |
Conclusion | 262 |
Chapter VI: Cetana and Attitudes of Mind: Abhidhamma Perspectives | 267 |
Holistic Approach to Consciousness in the Abhidhamma | 270 |
Cetana Regarded as Common to All States of Consciousness | 274 |
Definition of "Wholesome" | 278 |
Wholesome and Unwholesome "Roots" | 285 |
The Composition of Wholesome States of Mind | 289 |
Eight Types of Wholesome Cittas and Cetanas | 293 |
The Inner Dynamics of Unwholesome States of Mind | 295 |
Twelve Unwholesome Cittas and Cetanas | 300 |
Relationship Between Feeling (Vedana) and Cetana | 302 |
Planes of Consciousness | 306 |
The Concept of "Ethically Indeterminate" | 309 |
Cetana and the Cognitive Process | 313 |
Fusion of Perception and Purposive Impetus in Cognitive Processes | 317 |
Javana and "Freedom of Will" | 32 |
Conclusion | 325 |
Chapter VII: Cetana and the Mind’s Dynamic Capacities | 339 |
Connotations of Ayuhana in the Definitions of Cetana and Sankhara | 343 |
Cetana in the Classification Sankharas | 349 |
The Identification of Purposive Impulse (Cetana) with Morally Weighted Act (Kamma) | 353 |
Cetana and the Process of Rebirth | 357 |
The Connecting Role of Cetanas | 361 |
Conclusion | 363 |
Chapter VIII: Defining Cetana | 369 |
Definitions of Cetana in Atthasalini and Visuddhimagga | 372 |
Cetana Defined as Motivating Impulse | 377 |
Identifying Cetana with Kamma | 380 |
Cetana at the Beginning, Middle, and End of an Act | 385 |
Moral Responsibility for Mental Mamma | 387 |
The Fallacy of Two Purposive Impulses in a Single Purposive Act | 391 |
Kamma Redefined as Cetana and Associated Mental States | 393 |
Classification of Factors Associated with Cetana in the Nettippakarana | 396 |
Purposive Impulse as the Dynamic Mode of an Attitude of Mind | 400 |
Confluence of Purpose and Conative Impetus in Cetana | 403 |
Cetana and Moral Responsibility for Action | 406 |
Conclusion | 409 |
Chapter IX: Cetana and Other Pali Terms Indicating Motivation | 417 |
Adhimokkha | 418 |
Chanda | 420 |
Sankappa | 423 |
Cetana Compared with ‘Terms That Indicate Capacity to Initiate Goal-Directed Action | 426 |
Viriya | 427 |
Differentiating Craving (Tanha) from Cetana | 431 |
Conclusion | 435 |
Conclusion | 420 |
Charts | 467 |
Glossary | 484 |
Bibliography | 492 |
General Index | 514 |