Nadir Shah's extensive plundering of Delhi, including the infamous seizure of the Golden Peacock Throne, is a well-known historical event. This incident is a significant chapter in history, underscoring the global allure of gold.
In India, gold’s presence is widespread, ranging from jewelry and statues to paintings and clothing and beyond.
The earliest recorded instance of metal being used in artwork dates back to the 4th century CE. Ancient texts like the Vishnudharmottara Purana document the practice of creating gold pigments for painting, a tradition that persisted over centuries, as evidenced by later works such as the Shilpratna and Manasollasa.
These texts describe a meticulous processes of gold-coated paintings and even polishing it with boar tusks to achieve their characteristic sheen.
The Mahabharata, one of India's epic tales, describes 'pipilika gold' (also known as ants' gold) during King Yudhishthira's Rajasuya Yagna (coronation ceremony). This unique form of gold, fine and powdery, earned its name due to the method of extraction, involving the sifting of gold-rich soil from anthills and termite mounds.
Additionally, the ancient strategist Kautilya mentioned a naturally occurring, gold-infused liquid found in rock fissures. Remarkably, just one unit (pala) of this gold could be used to build a hundred palas of copper or silver.
Playwright Kalidasa, around the 4th century CE, also spoke of this 'kanaka-rasa' or dissolved gold, a concept further echoed in the Gandavyuha Sutra under the name 'hatakaprabhasa'.
The Rig-Veda, one of the oldest known texts, includes some of the earliest mentions of gold mining. It speaks of placer gold, mined from riverbeds, notably the Sindhu, Sarasvati, Jambu, and Ganga rivers.
The Sindhu, in particular, known as 'Hiranyayi' or the 'giver of gold' in the Nadistuti Sukta, was a major source due to its gold-laden path, hence also called 'Hiranyavartanih'.
The Vedas, while primarily religious texts, also delve into secular themes, including art, craft, music, and dance. Archaeological evidence like rock carvings, metal statues, and temple sculptures dating back to the 3rd century BCE display intricate gold jewelry adorned by both genders.
This aligns with Vedic literature, where gold ornaments like necklaces and headgear are frequently mentioned. The term 'hiranya-mani' in the Rig-Veda denotes gem-encrusted gold jewelry, and similar references to gold adornments are found in the Atharva-Veda, highlighting ear ornaments, golden amulets, nishka coin necklaces, and head ornaments.
(The Indian Gold Hunters, illustration of giant ants chasing Indian gold-hunters, based on the description by Herodotus in Book Three of his Histories - Wikipedia)
During the prosperous era of the Gupta Empire, India's influence in gold craftsmanship was undeniable. From 355 CE to 414 CE, Gupta rulers like Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, and Kumaragupta I minted gold coins celebrating Goddess Lakshmi.
These Dinara (Suvarna) coins featured intricate engravings of the goddess with lotuses and elephants, symbolizing India's 'Golden Age.'
(Goddess Lakshmi - Brass Sculpture Showering Golden Coins)
Renowned economist Angus Maddison highlighted in his 2003 study that during the first millennium CE, India's GDP constituted a significant portion of the global GDP, further cementing the nation's rich heritage in gold.
Indian art history reveals distinct northern and southern traditions in the use of gold in paintings. In the north, gold featured predominantly in Mughal and Rajasthani miniature paintings, where it was used to accentuate key elements and draw the viewer's attention.
Conversely, in the south, gold was integral to Tanjore and Mysore paintings. Tanjore paintings incorporated actual gold foil, whereas Mysore paintings utilized genuine gold varak to highlight the central figures, particularly in depictions of deities.
Sita Ram Pattabhishekam - Traditional Colors with 24 Karat Gold | With Frame
Mughal art, known for its lavish use of gold, was a fusion of Persian influences and local Indian styles, particularly evident during Emperor Akbar's reign. Gold leaves were not only used to enhance the visual appeal of the paintings but also to embellish calligraphy, architectural designs, attire, and ornate borders.
This period also saw the advent of Usta Kala in Bikaner, a Persian-influenced art form originating from the Mughal courts. The Mughals also introduced Meenakari, a craft heavily reliant on gold, tracing its roots back to Persia.
Furthermore, this era marked the beginning of gold's use in Indian textiles, giving rise to exquisite crafts like Brocades and Zardozi. The Deccani School of Miniature Painting, emerging around 1560 AD, paralleled the Mughal School.
Many economic historians argue that the substantial spending on monuments and art during Shah Jahan's reign strained the Mughal treasury. As a result, to cover these expenses and ensure funds were available for the kingdom's defense, many artists were dismissed from their positions.
Consequently, numerous Mughal artists relocated to the Deccan region. This led to the widespread of Mughal artistic influences in regions like Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Hyderabad, and Thanjavur.
Originating in the 16th century, Thanjavur paintings came into prominence under Maratha ruler Serfoji II. Following the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Tamil artists spread this art form to Thanjavur, Madurai, and Mysore under Nayaka and Maratha patronage.
The Maratha rulers' support led to the embellishment of these paintings with gold foil and precious stones. Mysore paintings, although similar, maintained a distinctive style, often eschewing gold foil embossing for gold varak.
In Thanjavur paintings, the liberal use of gold foil fulfills a dual purpose: enhancing the visual appeal of the artwork with its shimmer, and extending the longevity of the piece.
Unfortunately, foils composed of imitation materials can closely resemble real gold, posing a challenge for buyers in distinguishing between the authentic and the artificial.
Previously, it was challenging to discern whether the gold foil and gemstones employed in these age-old art forms were genuine or counterfeit without causing damage to the artwork. However, advancements in technology have provided a solution in the form of something called the Raman spectroscopy.
Pahari paintings, akin to Mughal art in their use of gold, flourished from the 17th to the 19th centuries in regions like Nurpur, Chamba, Basohli, Guler, Kangra, Mandi, Kullu, and Bilaspur.
These artworks, supported by Rajput rulers who were subservient to the Mughals, often depicted idyllic Himalayan landscapes and religious themes, including notable works on Radha and Lord Krishna and Jayadeva’s 'Gita-Govinda.' This style is believed to have evolved from the Mughal tradition and thrived due to Rajput patronage.
Zari work is a craft involving the weaving of gold or silver threads into fabrics, and is a hallmark of South Asian textile art. Predominantly used in traditional garments like sarees and lehengas, zari work adds both aesthetic and monetary value to the textiles.
The origins of zari can be traced back to the Rig Veda era (circa 1500–1200 BC), symbolizing the opulence of divine and royal apparel. Its prominence, however, skyrocketed during the 17th century under Mughal Emperor Akbar.
Surat, a key port city, played a significant role in reintroducing zari to the Indian subcontinent due to its connection to the Meccan pilgrimage route. Today, zari is available in various forms: real zari made from genuine gold and silver, imitation zari crafted from copper alloys, and the modern, durable metallic zari.
Gold jewelry in Indian culture has associations ranging from pragmatic to spiritual. Bhartrihari, a renowned Sanskrit poet and philosopher, eloquently illustrates this in a couplet from his Nitishataka.
He suggests that the possession of gold automatically blesses an individual with perceived virtues such as beauty, eloquence, wisdom, noble lineage, and mastery of scriptures, irrespective of their actual presence.
This observation by Bhartrihari is a societal truth about the perceived value and virtues often ascribed to wealth, particularly gold. Similarly, the Atharva-Veda, an ancient Indian text, holds a belief that the material possessions of a person at the time of death influence their afterlife.
Specifically, it states that if a person passes away adorned in gold, they are believed to embody the luster, vitality, and brilliance of the precious metal in the afterlife.
In conclusion, the journey of gold in Indian art and culture is as rich and diverse as the land itself. From the ancient Vedic texts to Mughal courts, and from the intricate paintings of the Deccan to the majestic textiles across the subcontinent, gold has been a medium of artistic expression and also a symbol of power, divinity, and prestige.
The way gold has been integrated into various art forms and cultural practices is a testament to its deep-seated significance in Indian heritage. The use of gold in Indian art is also a mirror to the society’s values, beliefs, and history.
Whether it is in the form of delicate zari work in textiles, the lustrous embellishments in paintings, or the revered presence in religious and royal artifacts, gold continues to hold a place of honor in India’s cultural narrative.
Looking to the future, these golden traditions face the dual challenge of preserving their ancient techniques while adapting to modern tastes and technologies. As India strides forward in the global arena, there is a growing interest in these traditional art forms.
This presents a unique opportunity to innovate while respecting the legacy, ensuring that the golden thread of Indian artistry continues to shine brightly for future generations.
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